Mohsen Goudarzi
Abstract
Social media platforms play a prominent role in the construction of various political discourses. Among these platforms, the X social network (formerly Twitter) stands out as one of ...
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Social media platforms play a prominent role in the construction of various political discourses. Among these platforms, the X social network (formerly Twitter) stands out as one of the most popular social media platforms for political actors in Iran. This activity intensifies during political events such as parliamentary elections, effectively providing a relative assessment of political and social views and insights. Various political discourses emerge from this collection of insights, views, perspectives, and political viewpoints. This research aims to identify the political discourses that emerged and gained authority around the 12th Iranian Parliament elections on the X social network. To this end, the network of likes for electoral content was visualized using Gephi software, and the authority variable was calculated. Then, a critical analysis of the authoritative discourses was conducted using Fairclough's approach. The research findings revealed that the official, reformist and moderate, principlist, critical, opposition, and monarchist discourses were the discourses formed around the parliamentary elections. Moreover, the evolution of the most authoritative discourses surrounding the parliamentary elections begins with the official discourse and ends with the critical and unofficial discourse. Complaints about the prevalence of immorality and vulgarity; the necessity of avoiding labeling expert candidates; and the need for rational political action were among the components of the critical discourse. The X network's authoritative discourses around the parliamentary elections consistently employed the language of sarcasm and humor in different time periods. It seems that this type of language serves as a means of expressing opinions with no consequences.
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
X, formerly known as Twitter, stands as a leading global social network and has become a focal point for extensive research due to its influential role in shaping world events and hosting vast amounts of online social data. Given its significant impact on political and social dynamics, scholars have increasingly turned to X as a vital platform for academic investigation, especially within the fields of media and political studies.
This study focuses on the discursive landscape on X in relation to the February 2024 Iranian parliamentary elections, a crucial event following the 2023 protests. By analyzing political discourse generated by millions of Iranian users, this research aims to provide deeper insight into societal dynamics. This analysis is important for policymakers as it helps them close potential gaps with the public and develop informed political and social strategies. Ignoring these powerful online discourses may lead to increased societal alienation and governmental ambiguity.
Literature Review
Research on the Iranian Twittersphere, including Marchant et al.’s (2016) study of the 2016 parliamentary elections, highlights a complex ecosystem of users during electoral periods. Their analysis identified 46 distinct user categories, ranging from political commentators to ordinary users sharing non-political content. A significant finding was the strong linkage between Iranians abroad and activists inside Iran, enabling transnational engagement in domestic political discourse. Beyond Iran-focused research, broader studies on user motivation suggest that a key driver of political activity on Twitter is the desire for social connection (Chen, 2011) and socialization (Li & Oh, 2013), which often takes the form of expressing political dissatisfaction rather than supporting specific parties or candidates (Hosch-Dayican et al., 2016).
A critical theme in the literature revolves around users forming homophilic networks, as described by Colleoni et al. (2014). This means that individuals tend to connect with others who share similar political viewpoints, creating insular "echo chambers." This phenomenon contributes to the formation of highly polarized online communities, a finding emphasized by Conover et al. (2021). This body of research suggests that the platform's design often reinforces existing beliefs rather than encouraging open political discourse, thereby limiting exposure to diverse viewpoints.
Methodology
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be employed to examine and interpret authoritative political discourses on X. Developed in the late 1980s, CDA has emerged as one of the most influential and systematic approaches within discourse analysis. It integrates the critical tradition of social inquiry with linguistic analysis, focusing on how discourse interacts with broader social structures—such as power relations, ideologies, institutions, and identities—to enable critical social examination (Fairclough, 2023: 15–17). Central to CDA is the exploration of how language reflects and reproduces power imbalances and social inequality (Blommaert & Bulcaen, 2000: 447). The method dynamically shifts between structural constraints and individual agency (Fairclough, 2001: 122) and relies on abductive and transductive reasoning in its analytical process.
Transductive inference involves reasoning from one specific instance to another specific instance, as opposed to deductive reasoning, which generalizes from specific observations to broader patterns (Vapnik, 2006: 462). Abductive inference, on the other hand, seeks the most plausible and parsimonious explanation for a given observation or set of data—hence it is often referred to as inference to the "best explanation" (Campos, 2011: 431).
This work will utilize the methodology presented by Fairclough, employing CDA to unravel multiple dimensions of political discourse. Authoritative discourse is identified using network analysis and the measurement of the "authority" variable via Gephi software. To this end, the network of likes for tweets containing the hashtag "Parliamentary Elections" (#انتخابات_مجلس) is mapped using this software, and the authority variable is calculated. This analysis is conducted for three distinct time periods:
From August 21 to September 29, 2024 (the initial registration period for election candidates), October 19 to November 27, 2024 (the final registration period for parliamentary candidates), and December 29 to 31, 2024 (the three days leading up to the parliamentary elections), content containing the hashtag #انتخابات_مجلس was extracted using the premium account of the exportcomments.com platform. Subsequently, the accounts that liked this content were extracted using the premium account of the TWLikeExport Chrome extension.
Results
The main results for the period from August 21 to September 29 are as follows: The dominant discourse is official and news-oriented, promoting an ideology of tolerance and openness. This discourse emphasizes the pervasiveness of immorality in the political sphere, the need for decisiveness in media and political activities, a zero-tolerance approach to vulgarity, and the importance of ethical political action. Some tweets promote components of revolutionary ideology, such as idealism, justice, rationality, and spirituality. This discourse appears to target minimal social action and aims to attract principlist and revolutionary groups, while neglecting other political and social views. The ideology of these tweets aligns with traditional principlist discourse. Some tweets emphasize political solidarity and coalition, highlighting the rationality of Mr. Qalibaf in Iranian politics and the need for a coalition of different political currents (the general rational current) to counter the extremist (irrational) current. Additionally, some tweets promote “personality worship” and Iranian nationalism.
The main results for the period from October 19 to November 27 are as follows: A critical discourse emerges, focusing on “personality worship” and criticizing the concentration of all political currents around a single figure. This approach is presented as conflicting with the demand for "change," implicitly suggesting that change can only be achieved by moving beyond Mr. Qalibaf, the Speaker of the eleventh parliament.
The main results for the period from December 29 to 31 are as follows: The critical discourse becomes dominant, questioning the principlist movement and its policies of exclusion toward moderates and reformists. Doubts about the legitimacy of the entire election are raised. Other themes include criticism of flawed social and political mechanisms of exclusion and the undemocratic nature of the electoral system. Some tweets express support for the political currents associated with Mr. Khatami, reformists, and moderates. The discourse emphasizes the need for rationality and logic in political debates, informed voting choices, and reforming the unhealthy electoral system. Additionally, some tweets portray the elections as a platform for collective public protest. Decriminalizing the hijab and regularizing residency permits for Afghans are also highlighted by the moderate current and its candidates.
Conclusion
The research findings indicate that in the three days before the parliamentary elections, the most influential users on X were mainly journalists, media outlets, and ordinary citizens—not official government accounts. Notably, ordinary citizens held the highest discursive authority during this critical phase. Additionally, the study uncovers a more nuanced user classification than earlier research indicated, identifying distinct groups such as official accounts, reformists, principlists, critics, opposition members, and monarchists—all advancing their own unique political narratives.
The discourse during the elections revolved around concerns about economic and political corruption, inefficiencies in the electoral process, a need for rational political engagement, and calls for protest through non-voting. In addition, two prominent discourses emerged: an exclusionary nationalist discourse targeting Afghan migrants that gained traction on the platform, and a discourse centered on "personality worship" that created authoritative discourses through intricate intertextuality throughout different timeframes.
