Shadi Zabet
Abstract
Instagram users are aware that publishing images and texts helps build a self-image. Following Goffman’s framework and supported by various studies on Iranian society, most users ...
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Instagram users are aware that publishing images and texts helps build a self-image. Following Goffman’s framework and supported by various studies on Iranian society, most users aim to present the positive aspects of their "self." This article examines the performances of users who instead highlight their inadequacies, mistakes, or flaws in personality or appearance—challenging Goffman’s theory. Using qualitative virtual ethnography, this study selected twenty-one participants through the snowball method. Thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews revealed that these users viewed non-idealized self-representation as a form of resistance against both intra- and extra-Instagram norms. By resisting idealized portrayals, they sought to present a "true image" of themselves—one perceived as sincere and culturally valuable in Iranian society. This resistance and self-representation deviate from Instagram’s conventional standards; rather, they stem from users’ mental perceptions of the platform and its audience. Ultimately, this practice can be interpreted as a form of technological appropriation and domestication: within Iran’s sociocultural context, these users adapt Instagram to serve their purposes based on their understanding of the technology and its audience.
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
Self-presentation – the act of curating one's image through appearance, behavior, and environment – constitutes a fundamental social process in both physical and virtual spaces. Drawing on Erving Goffman's (1959) dramaturgical perspective, individuals strategically present an idealized self to maintain social credibility. On Instagram, this typically manifests through polished, aesthetically pleasing content that aligns with prevailing societal standards of beauty, success, and competence. Empirical studies in the Iranian context (e.g., Ajagh & Mirzaei Mousavi, 2016; Hashemi Monfared & Rabiei, 2016; Zokai et al., 2020) consistently demonstrate users' predominant tendency to construct positive, socially conforming self-representations.
However, this study examines a distinct subset of Instagram users who consciously subvert these norms by deliberately sharing content that foregrounds personal imperfections—including unflattering photographs, culinary failures, disorganized living spaces, or unfiltered appearances. Such disclosures risk social stigmatization, particularly within cultural contexts that place heightened value on public image maintenance. This raises the central research question: What motivates users to present non-idealized self-images, counter to both Goffman's theoretical framework and Instagram's dominant conventions? The study employs an interdisciplinary theoretical approach, integrating Goffman's self-presentation paradigm with theories of technological appropriation (Jouët, 2000), domestication (Silverstone, 1994), and symbolic interactionism to interrogate how culturally-specific meanings shape these counter-normative practices.
Conceptual Framework
Goffman’s Self-Presentation
Goffman (1959) conceptualizes social interaction as a theatrical performance wherein individuals strategically manage impressions to present an idealized, socially credible self. This performative process entails suppressing undesirable traits while accentuating positive qualities to conform to prevailing social expectations. On Instagram, this typically manifests through carefully curated self-presentation, where users selectively showcase flawlessness while systematically obscuring imperfections to maintain a socially validated facade.
Technological Appropriation and Domestication
The appropriation approach, grounded in Michel de Certeau's (1984) conception of tactical resistance, frames users as active agents who creatively adapt technologies to serve their own purposes, thereby subverting dominant normative structures. Silverstone's (1994) domestication theory provides a complementary framework, elucidating how users incorporate technologies into everyday practices while imbuing them with culturally-specific meanings. This dual process encompasses both practical implementation and symbolic reinterpretation, as users negotiate the technology's functionality within their personal and socio-cultural contexts.
Role of Meaning in Technology Use
Symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969) posits that human behavior emerges from the meanings individuals collectively construct through social interaction, particularly through their interpretive engagement with symbolic objects. Extending this framework, Flichy (2008) contends that technologies become embedded with social imaginaries - collectively held mental representations of their intended purposes and imagined audiences - which fundamentally structure their patterns of use. On Instagram, this theoretical lens reveals how users' subjective understandings of the platform's norms and anticipated viewership actively shape their self-presentation strategies and content production.
Literature Review
Existing scholarship on Iranian social media practices consistently documents patterns of idealized self-presentation. Hashemi Monfared and Rabiei's (2016) research demonstrates how users strategically align their Instagram profiles with dominant societal values to cultivate social approval. Similarly, Ravardrad and Gishnizjani (2017) identified photo-editing practices as instrumental in constructing idealized bodily representations, while Zokai et al. (2020) observed women predominantly showcasing meticulously curated images of affluent, flawless lifestyles. Notably, even marginalized populations engage in this trend - Dehsofiani and Mahmoudi Hanaroud (2019) found that recovering homeless women emphasize positive aspects of their current circumstances. This pattern extends beyond Iran, as evidenced by Piazzesi and Lavoie's (2020) cross-cultural study of women negotiating normative pressures to present perfected selves, and Bayard's (2018) analysis of celebrity mothers constructing immaculate representations of motherhood.
While these studies strongly corroborate Goffman’s theoretical framework, they predominantly focus on idealized self-presentation, thereby neglecting users who deliberately share non-curated or unfavorable content—a practice that may ostensibly compromise their social credibility. This critical oversight in the literature motivates the present investigation, which seeks to: (1) examine the underlying motivations among Iranian users who engage in counter-normative self-representation, and (2) analyze how these practices intersect with both sociocultural expectations and technological affordances within the Iranian context.
Methodology
This study employed virtual ethnography (netnography), adapting conventional ethnographic approaches to digital environments (Kozinets, 2002). The netnographic methodology entailed sustained immersive engagement with online communities to systematically examine users' behavioral patterns and interpretive frameworks. Our research population comprised active Instagram users who consistently shared content deviating from platform norms of idealized self-presentation, including but not limited to depictions of personal failures, domestic disarray, or unmodified physical appearances. Participant selection combined purposive and snowball sampling strategies, with inclusion criteria specifying: (a) minimum one year of consistent platform activity, and (b) a baseline of ten substantive posts monthly. Primary data collection occurred through in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted virtually, with the sample size determined by theoretical saturation principles. Saturation was initially achieved after 18 interviews, with three subsequent confirmatory interviews conducted to verify findings. To enhance theoretical robustness, we implemented safeguards against premature saturation by: (1) maximizing participant diversity across age (22-38 years), occupational status, marital circumstances, and religiosity levels, and (2) employing iterative sampling to incorporate emerging thematic variations.
Findings
Thematic analysis yielded three core themes:
Resistance to Intra-Platform and Sociocultural Normative Pressures
Participants actively contested both Instagram's internal platform norms promoting idealized self-presentation (e.g., perpetual attractiveness, domestic perfection, professional success) and external sociocultural expectations (e.g., conventional lifestyle choices, structural limitations). They characterized mainstream Instagram content as fundamentally "artificial," representing constructed and disingenuous portrayals of lived experience. Through their deliberate sharing of unvarnished content, these users engaged in discursive resistance, privileging authentic self-expression over performative compliance with dominant paradigms.
Pursuit of Authenticity
Participants sought to present a "real" self by blending both positive and negative aspects—including personality flaws, unfiltered appearances, and complex social roles. This approach was grounded in Iranian cultural values that prize honesty and acceptance of imperfection, while stigmatizing pretense (such as hypocrisy or deception). By sharing their imperfections, participants viewed this as an authentic practice that fostered genuine connections with their audience through relatability and truthfulness.
Subjective Meanings of Technology and Audience
This study reveals that some Iranian Instagram users intentionally present non-idealized selves, challenging Goffman's theory of curated self-presentation. Rather than risking discreditation, they view this as establishing authenticity and credibility, aligning with cultural values that prize honesty and embrace imperfection. Their behavior demonstrates tactical resistance (de Certeau, 1984) to both Instagram's normative standards and societal expectations, as they adapt the platform to serve their personal objectives.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study reveals that some Iranian Instagram users consciously present non-ideal selves, challenging Goffman’s theory of idealized self-presentation. Rather than risking discreditation, they perceive this as a pathway to authenticity and credibility, aligning with cultural values that value honesty and accept imperfection. This behavior reflects tactical resistance (de Certeau, 1984) against Instagram’s normative pressures and societal expectations, as users adapt the platform to serve their goals.
The findings support appropriation and domestication theories, demonstrating how users actively reshape technologies to align with personal and cultural meanings. Participants' mental images of Instagram as a space for liberation and their perception of an authenticity-seeking audience motivated their unconventional self-presentation. This contrasts with previous Iranian studies that focus on idealized portrayals, suggesting cultural context modifies theoretical applications. As Kazemi (2021) observes, theories transform across cultural contexts; in Iran, Islamic and Persian literary traditions that embrace imperfection make idealized self-presentation appear less authentic.
This study advances our understanding of how users domesticate digital platforms, employing Instagram to express authentic identities instead of conforming to globalized norms. It highlights the crucial role of cultural meanings in technology use, demonstrating how users' social imaginaries of Instagram and its audience inform their counter-normative practices. Study limitations include recruitment challenges, indicating that future quantitative research could measure the prevalence of such content. Additional qualitative studies might explore why users who maintain idealized self-presentations remain unaware of the inauthenticity perceived by their audiences.
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