Fatemeh Rahpeymafard; Afsaneh Mozaffari; Davod Nemati
Abstract
The research aims to explore the factors affecting self-presentation among Instagram users and examine their correlations. It adopts an exploratory-sequential design, blending elements of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The qualitative part is exploratory, while the quantitative part ...
Read More
The research aims to explore the factors affecting self-presentation among Instagram users and examine their correlations. It adopts an exploratory-sequential design, blending elements of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The qualitative part is exploratory, while the quantitative part is descriptive-survey, providing a comprehensive perspective on the topic. For the qualitative part, a targeted sample of communication and sociology experts who use Instagram was selected through purposive sampling. The study's quantitative component involves a survey of Instagram users in the city of Karaj in 2020. Random selection of participants based on their IP addresses confirmed to be located in Karaj was conducted using data provided by an Instagram advertising company. A total of 384 individuals were identified through Cochran's formula for the quantitative survey. The qualitative phase employed semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis for data collection and analysis. In the quantitative stage, a researcher-devised questionnaire was utilized alongside structural equation modeling through Lisrel software. The results revealed that political characteristics, individual factors, characteristics of the media system, cultural elements, and Instagram-specific features positively and significantly influenced self-presentation. The analysis showed political factors exerting the highest impact, Instagram characteristics the least, while content features had minimal impact.
Introduction
Humans have an inherent desire to be seen and present themselves, and social media has had a significant impact on fulfilling this desire. Previously existing barriers to communicative and self-presenting activities have been largely overcome by these media, offering a range of facilitating features. Individuals can now engage in online socializing by sharing content such as news, photos, and other forms of information (Taprial & Kanwar, 2012:8). Moreover, the possibility of remaining anonymous and the virtual nature of communication in social networks eliminate the challenges and difficulties of real-life communication. As a result, individuals' participation in these networks compensates for the absence of face-to-face interaction with real social groups. Additionally, the nature of online relationships in social networks tends to enhance people's ability to express themselves genuinely and authentically, as confirmed by Antoci, Sabatini, and Sodini (2014, p. 123). A significant feature of self-expression in cyberspace is that it differs from self-presentation in real-life contexts due to the ability to carefully review and edit content before publication. This level of control can lead to self-serving bias, as individuals may feel the need to preserve their personal interests and maintain cognitive consistency. This phenomenon was highlighted by Stănculescu (2011). Some individuals utilize the selective process of online self-presentation in social networks to both seek social support (as noted in Kim and Tussyadiah's 2013 publication, p. 80) and address issues related to low self-esteem, inadequate socio-communicative skills, mental health challenges, shyness, and social anxiety (as cited in Stănculescu, 2011; Yang and Brown, 2016).
Mental and psychological tendencies for self-presentation on Instagram are more prominent than on other social networks. For instance, self-promotion is a more prevalent feature, as evident in research by Marcus (2015). Jackson and Luchner (2018) support this, stating that feedback on Instagram is closely linked to individuals' personalities, particularly in terms of their need for self-definition and connection (Jackson & Luchner, 2018, p. 2). Given the unique nature of communication in these spaces, which offers ample opportunities for diverse forms of self-expression, this phenomenon poses significant challenges at the individual and micro levels. For instance, Instagram's image and video filtering capabilities enable deceptive and fake self-expressions, emphasizing the importance of the issue to the extent that dating sites such as Plenty of Fish, along with others, removed such filters in 2019 due to their deceptive potential (New York Post, 2019). Identity problems, such as social, cultural, and value disintegration, as well as feelings of alienation and narcissism, are among the challenges we observe in the false and exaggerated self-expressions of Instagram users. These issues highlight the need and significance of investigating the factors influencing the self-expression of Instagram users. Addressing one of these concerns, the phenomenon of fear plays a crucial role in shaping how individuals present themselves on this platform. Fear of missing out (FOMO) serves as a potent and motivating factor driving users' self-expression on Instagram. However, a reciprocal factor that limits self-expression is the fear of destruction, disrespect, and loss of privacy. This is an illustration of the intricate factors that influence self-expression in cyberspace and how these elements affect users' self-presentation is an equally intricate subject. The extensive reach and intricacies of these issues warrant detailed scientific research.
By identifying the factors influencing different types of self-presentation on Instagram, it becomes possible to minimize the occurrence of undesirable self-expressive behaviors. Additionally, educating and informing other users about the factors and contexts associated with these behaviors can help them to be prepared against such threats and deceits. Simultaneously, recognizing influencing factors can facilitate the implementation of effective measures to guide users toward positive self-presentation, self-esteem, and self-confidence enhancement. Previous research in this area has mainly focused on self-presentation in relation to specific psychological traits or within restricted groups such as students. No comprehensive studies have yet addressed the factors impacting the general online self-expression of Instagram users, despite their vast number and popularity. With the emergence of domestic platforms being developed to replace Instagram, this research aims to explore the factors influencing the self-presentation of Instagram users in response to the following questions:
What are the factors affecting the self-expression of Instagram users?
How are influencing factors related to the variable of self-expression?
Previous Research
There has been some domestic research on this topic, including a study by Ardakanifard and Rezvizadeh (1399), which explored how Iranian celebrities present themselves on Instagram. The research found that the five components—being special and popular, ordinary and from the society, active and responsible, approved and benevolent, and intimate and people-oriented—represent celebrities as a reference group. Rahimisaj and Moulai Totakhane (1395) conducted a study examining the relationship between types of "self" in the self-presentation of youth on the Cloob site. Their findings indicate that users attempt to portray a positive, idealistic, and perfectionist self image, which may differ significantly from reality. This behavior aligns with Goffman's theory, suggesting that individuals are playing a role by portraying an ideal version of themselves. Lai, Lee, and Borah (2019) conducted a study examining self-expression on Instagram and its effect on friendship among youth. The findings suggest that the perceived richness of Instagram as a social media platform has a positive impact on the self-expression of youth on this platform. Moreover, perceived usage is identified as a mediating factor in the relationship between perceived media richness and self-presentation on Instagram. Wised, Lee, Jahng, and Hong (2019) investigated the phenomenon of excessive self-presentation and its association with social cues and users' evaluations of Instagram selfies. Their findings indicate that filtered selfies receive fewer likes, while the use of social cues in selfies has a positive correlation with the number of likes on Instagram.
Rahardjo, Tanaya, and Qurani (2017) studied the relationship between self-confidence and random friendship, as well as fear of missing out, on the self-expression of Instagram users. Their findings highlight that the only variable influencing self-expression is the fear of missing out, thus emphasizing the importance of its role in shaping self-expression on Instagram.
Research Method
This study is a mixed-method sequential-exploratory research. The qualitative portion of this study adopts an exploratory approach, while the quantitative aspect is descriptive and survey-based. The sample of the qualitative component comprises 12 communication science and sociology experts residing in Tehran. Within this sample, there are 4 female participants and 8 male participants. Out of the 12 participants, 11 hold Ph.D. degrees, and 1 holds a master's degree. The participants were chosen using a non-probabilistic purposive sampling method.
Two criteria were considered when selecting the interviewees for this study. First, the individuals had to be active Instagram users, with varying levels of participation ranging from professional content creation to mere presence on the platform. The second criterion was having a solid academic and research background in the field of social networks, including books, articles, theses, conferences, or other relevant publications. The statistical population of the quantitative part is all Instagram users in the city of Karaj. Choosing Karaj as the sample location is justified by its diverse ethnic and cultural composition, making it a representative sample of Iranian users. The city's diversity and cultural mix are so pronounced that it is commonly referred to as "Little Iran" and the "Land of Seventy-Two Nations."
In the qualitative aspect, the semi-structured interviews with the sample participants proceeded until theoretical saturation was attained and the principle of sufficiency achieved. After the twelfth interview, no additional data were gained, and repetition of the information became evident. It is worth noting that the interview questions were formulated in a general manner, and the participants were not limited to addressing specific questions. Instead, the conversation was guided based on the overall structure, axes, and objectives outlined for the interview, primarily based on the research's aims, questions, theoretical framework, and conceptual foundations. Here are the main interview questions addressed in each interview:
Can you describe the types of self-expression on Instagram?
Based on your perspective, what factors influence how users express themselves within these categories?
Can you elaborate on the factors related to culture and society that impact self-expression on Instagram?
In your opinion, what distinctive facilities and opportunities does Instagram offer for self-expression, setting it apart from other social networks?
The interview data obtained from the participants was analyzed using the thematic analysis technique. Considering the mixed-method approach and the review of relevant literature, theories, and interview data, the template analysis method was utilized. This method was chosen to analyze the themes inherent in the qualitative data, particularly interview data, as it is specifically designed for that purpose.
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on the qualitative findings, it was discovered that political characteristics, encompassing aspects like a country's political system's attitude towards media, the deficiency in effectively facilitating dialogue in physical spaces, and regulations that limit or block social media, constitute the primary determinant of users' self-expression. The quantitative component of the study revealed, through path analysis, that political characteristics have a considerable impact on the self-expression of Instagram users in Karaj. The significance coefficient was determined to be 7.61, and the standardized coefficient was found to be 0.83. Surprisingly, no other research has yet been conducted to investigate the degree of alignment or misalignment with this particular factor.
Within an environment where, due to the political system's handling of diverse issues and the absence of alternatives, there is a visible onslaught of scarcity and deficiency, which manifests in social networks. Moreover, in light of social media's ability to generate, disseminate, and republish news, it is observed that Instagram's space displays a constant focus on sad and painful news, as well as recurrent problems. Instagram's algorithm and the hidden influence of others also contribute to this issue. According to the theory of self-expression, users' self-expression is shaped by environmental characteristics, making this concept applicable here. Instagram users express themselves in alignment with the norms prevalent in their environment and may employ strategies to garner likes and attract followers.
The qualitative findings revealed that individual characteristics, which encompass factors such as personality traits (e.g., extraversion, introversion), self-esteem, fear, conservatism, and mental health aspects, significantly influence users' self-expression on Instagram. The quantitative analysis, conducted through path analysis, substantiated this finding. The significance coefficient was determined to be 6.84, indicating a strong relationship between individual characteristics and self-expression. The standardized coefficient, measured at 0.76. The results of this study are in alignment with the findings of the research conducted by Hamideh Moulavi and Zahra Majdizadeh (1396) on the impact of individual factors on self-expression. Additionally, they are consistent with the findings of the research by Salim et al. (2017) concerning the influence of fear on self-expression.
According to the theory of self-expression, self-expressive activities originate from the fundamental human need for status and recognition. When individual self-confidence and self-esteem are low, strategies may be employed to gain popularity or status, potentially leading to deceptive or false self-expressions. Conversely, if self-esteem and conservatism are high, defensive self-expression strategies may be utilized to evade threatening or harmful circumstances, thereby safeguarding the self from potential harm or destruction. According to the qualitative findings, a country's media system, which encompasses aspects like restrictions and blocking of most social media platforms, weakness in its human and structural resources, and a low level of media literacy within the community, emerged as a significant factor influencing users' self-expression on Instagram. The quantitative analysis, conducted through path analysis, confirmed this finding, revealing a significance coefficient of 5.49 and a standardized coefficient of 0.70. No research was found to specifically examine the alignment or divergence of these factors.
The official media system of the country fails to cater to the audience's needs, and simultaneously, the policy of restricting social media, coupled with the technical and linguistic attributes of the Instagram platform such as anonymity, virtual identity, editing capabilities, and usage of various filters before publishing content, have collectively contributed to driving individuals towards self-expression on Instagram. Under these circumstances, the platform offers ample opportunities for selective self-expression, something not readily available in the societal real space, especially within the country's official media. According to the qualitative findings, cultural characteristics play a significant role in impacting users' self-expression. Within Instagram, a strong preference for oral culture over written culture is observed, along with the emergence of negative aspects of informal culture in contrast to formal culture. Additionally, there is a low tolerance for cultural or ideological differences. The quantitative analysis, conducted through path analysis, confirmed this finding, revealing a significant effect of cultural characteristics.
In the context of self-presentation theory, the presence of observers affects an individual's self-presentation. Furthermore, the characteristics of the social situation are crucial, with cultural norms in the environment determining what non-verbal behaviors are considered acceptable. Given the increasing dominance of these negative aspects on Instagram, it is logical to infer that the self-expression observed on the platform reflects accepted societal values and aligns with the cultural norms of its environment, in accordance with the self-expression theoretical framework. Research in the field of impression management suggests that, under equal circumstances, people often pay more attention to individuals with a greater number of negative rumors surrounding them as opposed to neutral or positive individuals. This phenomenon can explain the spread of rumors and the accelerated dissemination of negative news, as well as self-presentations that significantly differ from the genuine selves of these users.
Based on the qualitative findings, Instagram's formal and structural attributes, such as the capability for anonymity, creating a personal profile without the requirement for verification, a prominent visual culture, the ability to choose one's personal page, the option to privatize it, the possibility of filtering content before publishing, and an easier process of registration and participation when compared to numerous other social media platforms, collectively contribute to facilitating the process of participation and engagement. The quantitative analysis, conducted through path analysis, revealed a significant effect of Instagram's characteristics on the self-expression of Instagram users in Karaj. The standard coefficient was determined at 0.59, with a significance coefficient of 3.24. This finding aligns with the research by Lai, Lee & Borah (2019) regarding the influence of Instagram's media richness on self-presentation. According to Walter's model of interpersonal communications, self-presentation via computer-mediated channels often offers greater planning capabilities and the chance for self-censorship. In this regard, the availability of varied filters for content editing prior to transmission, coupled with the opportunity for selective self-presentation enhancement and improvement, as well as self-censorship on Instagram, is effectively facilitated.
The qualitative research findings suggest that content attributes, such as the message's elements, features, message value, and source, play a role in shaping users' self- expression. However, the quantitative analysis, which included a path analysis test, indicated that content characteristics did not exert a significant influence on the self-expression of Instagram users in Karaj. The significance coefficient was measured at 1.47, with a standard coefficient standing at 0.16. This result diverges from the findings reported in the research conducted by Wised et al. (2019). This discrepancy may stem from the relatively limited impact of these content attributes in comparison to the substantial influence of other influential factors within the specific research at hand. Self-expression actions are generally undertaken with the objective of achieving recognition and status.
Conversely, based on the impression management theory, individuals' behaviors are shaped by the expectations of others within the context of computer-to-computer communications. During the communication process, data deemed appropriate is selectively transmitted and received by both the communicator and the receiver. If the content lacks a perceived value load for the user, is not of particular sensitivity, or if the feedback or response to such shared content could potentially harm the user's reputation or status, this might restrict their willingness to engage in self-expression
