Measuring Critical Media Literacy Based on Elizabeth Tamman's Model

Media literacy is a set of learnable skills that refer to the ability to access, analyze, criticize and create various types of media messages. It is considered an essential skill in today's world. The aim of this study was to measure the level of critical media literacy using the model developed by Elizabeth Tamman. The study is classified as applied research, with the purpose of eliciting information, and as a survey in terms of research methodology. The study population consisted of all employees of Ardabil city's departments in the year 2021. The total population size was estimated at 10,000 based on data from the management and planning organization of the Ardabil province, as provided in the 2019 statistical yearbook. Morgan's table was used to determine the sample size, and 285 individuals were selected through multi-stage cluster sampling. To gather data, a questionnaire based on Elizabeth Tamman's (1995) model was utilized in this study. The results of the research, analyzed using SPSS version 26 software, suggest that there is no significant correlation between demographic factors (such as gender, marital status, income, age, and education level) and critical media literacy based on Tamman's (1995) model. Inferential findings indicated that the level of critical media literacy, considering variables such as consumption pattern, recognition of message characteristics and message criticism, was found to be greater than 0.05 (p-value = 1.000) in the study population. However, the mean media literacy score was deemed lower than optimal.
 
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
In the 21st century, we find ourselves in a world marked by contrasting forces—a treacherous yet promising era. Rapid change and transformation define this landscape, where deep social divisions and the destructive impact of information technology and new media technologies coexist. Giddens (2013: 21) highlights contradiction and tension as its main characteristics. Mass communication tools, including newspapers, television, radio, satellite networks, and new media on the internet, facilitate the exchange of information and ideas, playing a crucial role in cultural and societal development. These tools are so significant that many experts have dubbed the current era the "age of communication," emphasizing their profound impact on human life (Motamanjad, 3:1390).
In the current era, with the abundance of information and widespread communication, people face the challenge of discerning and selecting among the multitude of information and media tools, ensuring the authenticity of the information. It is in this context that the importance of media literacy skill becomes evident (Tabarsa, Sharifi & Hosseini, 2015). In today's world, two factors are essential to consider: the ever-expanding nature of information and communication technologies and their pervasive influence on human life, coupled with the growing prevalence of information leakage, pollution, and the necessity for reliable sources of information. Moreover, mass media's vast reach, its significant role in shaping societal intellectual development, and its impact on informal education and raising public awareness should not be overlooked. Additionally, the importance of critical media literacy has become more crucial than ever, as it enables individuals to effectively analyze media messages and content while being aware of potential biases.
We find ourselves in an era of media saturation (McLean, Paxton & Wertheim, 2016). Due to this saturation, the amount of available information is overwhelming, necessitating thoughtful and judicious decision-making when selecting relevant information. Currently, the media holds a pivotal position in our lives, along with formal education. Together, they play a crucial role in enhancing people's skills and knowledge, becoming essential components of personal and societal development.
As you traverse the information superhighway, media literacy empowers you to discern how much time to dedicate to various media platforms and websites, ensuring your time spent is purposeful and productive. Those who possess media literacy skills can approach programs with a critical, analytical, research-oriented perspective, as the media serves as a vital source of information about the world around us. Equipped with media literacy, individuals can critically analyze messages, comprehend the message's purpose and intentions, and determine the message's sender's viewpoint.
According to Elizabeth Thomman, media literacy functions like a judging filter, sifting through the vast world of messages and transforming the encounter into something meaningful. Thomman posits that a media message operates on three distinct layers:
The first layer pertains to personal planning in media consumption, known as "consumption regime," where the audience demonstrates more selective attention in choosing and watching various types of programs, specifically in the use of television, video, internet, computer games, films and other media, adjusting consumption levels accordingly.
The second layer entails scrutinizing the subtler aspects of media, focusing on profound questions such as: Who produces media messages? What is the intent behind transmitting the message? Who profits from disseminating the message, and who may be adversely affected?
The third layer of media literacy focuses on critical viewing skills. With these skills, the audience is able to analyze and question the framework of the media message and the hidden elements within it. At this level, it is crucial to recognize the facts and aspects that have been left out or omitted. Consequently, the audience's understanding of the text hinges on identifying the underlying dimensions of the media message. In essence, Thomas Hobbes regards this aspect of media literacy as "higher level understanding," highlighting its significance. His perspective suggests that this aspect of media literacy offers remarkable insight into predicting the audience's needs and expectations with uncanny precision.
Elizabeth Thomman's definition suggests that as the layers of media literacy deepen, so does the audience's level of critical thinking about the media. Initially, the audience is expected to exercise discretion in their media consumption habits, while in the second layer, they must exhibit discernment in choosing media messages based on the sender's characteristics. In other words, the audience selectively engages with certain messages while disregarding the rest.
In the third layer of media literacy, media messages are scrutinized thoroughly. As a result, media literacy empowers the audience to critically assess the messages they receive and transform from a passive state to an active, questioning, and self-expressive stance. Critical media literacy serves as a unique capacity that elevates the reader from a passive object to an active agent in the act of interpreting texts, regardless of whether they are written, visual, or auditory, and across various mediums such as books, magazines, billboards, radio, television, and satellite communications.
Research Methodology
This study was designed for practical purposes and employed a descriptive research method. The statistical population of the study comprised the entire workforce of the government departments in Ardabil city in the year 2019, totaling 10,000 individuals according to management and planning organization data. To determine the sample size, a multistage cluster sampling method was used, yielding a sample size of 285 individuals. The study utilized a standardized questionnaire (authored by Toman in 1995) to collect data. For the purpose of evaluating the level of media literacy among the employees of Ardabil city offices, this research utilized a standard questionnaire with three constructs and 59 closed-ended questions on a five-point Likert scale. The dimensions measured included consumption regime, message characteristics, and critiques pertaining to the messages.
The research analysis consisted of descriptive statistics, involving frequency statistics, mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis coefficients. Subsequently, inferential statistics utilized single-sample t-tests, independent groups t-tests, and analysis of variance to contrast the average of research variables regarding demographic factors. The findings were analyzed employing SPSS26 statistical software at a 5% significance level.
Discussion and conclusion
Based on the model proposed by Elizabeth Tamman, this research aimed to assess the level of critical media literacy among government department employees in their daily lives and determine the extent of their consumption of various mass media, including television, the internet, newspapers, satellite services, and social networks. Additionally, the research aimed to examine the tendencies of multiple segments of society, emphasizing the importance of government employees and executive bodies as vital and sensitive elements of the nation's bureaucratic framework in their engagement with mass and interactive media. Furthermore, the study focused on highlighting the significance of understanding and recognizing the diverse layers of media messages while concurrently enhancing the level of comprehension and capability to critically evaluate these messages. Based on the research findings in response to question one, the average critical media literacy score for employees at offices in Ardabell City, when accounting for the factors of consumption regime, message characteristics, and message criticism, exceeded the 5/000 threshold. Additionally, the average media literacy among government office employees fell short of the desired level.
The findings of this study diverge from those of Esquii (2017), Renko (2020), Dim and Mitchell (2020), Tarihi, Guzman Vaikin (2020) and Fleming (2020) with regards to message recognition and message critique. The research findings are also congruent with the studies conducted by Sotoudeh Rad, Taghizadeh, Heydari, and Kishori (2019) as well as Festel (2020) in terms of message characteristic recognition, critical and analytical media message assessment.
In addressing the findings pertaining to the first fundamental question of this study, a crucial dimension of media literacy according to Elizabeth Tamman's theory, the variable of consumption regime, appears to have received less attention and emphasis in the outcomes of previous researches. As a fundamental gap in preceding studies, the current research has diligently scrutinized the consumption regime of office workers regarding their exposure to mass media throughout the day and night, as well as the extent of time allocated daily. Through this approach, the research has yielded significant insights into this crucial aspect of media consumption.
Given the significant role and position held by government office workers, who are predominantly university graduates working in government and governance positions, as they regularly engage with mass media (television, internet, newspaper, satellite, and social networks), especially the internet for an average of 1-3 hours, and considering the wide variety and abundance of media messages, it was anticipated that these individuals would have a favorable standing in terms of recognizing the characteristics of media messages and critically evaluating media content. It was expected that attending specialized training courses and investing resources and public funds would lead to improved knowledge and understanding among these government office employees.
The findings of this study reveal that the average level of media literacy among the employees of government department offices in Ardabil city falls short of the desired standard. The research findings in response to question two, which seeks to determine whether there is a significant distinction in average critical media literacy among employees of Ardabil city offices based on demographic factors (gender, age, education, and income), indicate that there is indeed a significant difference between the levels of media literacy among these demographic groups.
Upon analyzing the data, it became apparent that there was no significant correlation between the average critical media literacy of government department employees in Ardabil city and the demographic variables (gender, age, education, and income).
In this particular research study, the findings concerning the demographic variables align with those presented by: Sotoudeh Rad, Heydari and Kishori (2013), Iranpour (2018), Eskoui (2017), Nemati, Bagherzadeh and Kazemi (2017), Bani Hashem, Noushadi, Soltanizadeh and Aliabadi (2016), Bani Hashem, Noushadi, Soltanizadeh and Aliabadi (2016), Soltanifar (2013), Babran and Khodavirdizadeh (2013), Ashrafi Rizi, Ramezani, Aghajani and Kazempour (2013), Qadri (2011), Shojaei and Amirpour (2011), Hamedi (2013) and Festel (2020), Iranpour (1398), Eskoi (1397), Nemati, Bagherzadeh and Kazemi (1397), Bani Hashem, Noushadi, Soltanizadeh and Aliabadi (1396), Babran and Khodavirdizadeh (1393), Ashrafi Rizi, Ramezani, Aghajani and Kazempour (2013), Qadri (2014), Shojaei and Amirpour (2014), Hamedi (2015), Renko (2020), Dim and Michel (2020), Tarihi, Gazman and Eakin (2020), Fleming (2020).
The alignment of results observed in this study with those of previous investigations can be attributed to the rapid advancement of communication technologies and the growing influence of interactive mass media online, coupled with the heightened academic literacy level and expanded range of academic disciplines. Furthermore, the shifting roles of individuals as social actors, moving away from traditional gender expectations, and the changing nature of social interactions all contribute to the lack of significant correlation between demographic variables and critical media literacy among government office employees in Ardabil city. Consequently, the improvement of media literacy skills appears to extend beyond demographic factors.
Suggestions
It is important to acknowledge that every study has its limitations and can only investigate a certain number of aspects of a social issue. The burgeoning emergence of new social problems and phenomena, in line with the rapid expansion and advancement of information and communication technology, coupled with the prevailing status of mass media as the most trustworthy source of news, information, and awareness-raising, particularly in the network societies of the 21st century in both developed and developing countries, has resulted in a wide range of dimensions and aspects that remain to be explored.
Based on the findings of this study, it is highly recommended that future researchers expand their scope to include not only the employees of government offices in Ardabil city but also consider a wider demographic encompassing various regions within the country. Additionally, it would be beneficial for researchers to broaden their reach further to incorporate data from other countries and compare their outcomes. By doing so, a more accurate insight into the current state of critical media literacy within Iranian society can be obtained.
A suggestion worth considering is for the officials and administrators responsible for managing each province to arrange specialized workshops pertaining to media literacy for employees of government departments and executive bodies. These workshops ought to be conducted by reputable specialists in this field, with the ultimate goal of identifying the strengths and addressing the weaknesses within the system. This action will not only facilitate a better understanding of media literacy among the employees, but will also provide valuable feedback for future planning and development.
In order to ensure effective decision-making and avoid any wastage of time, financial resources, and the country's cultural capital, it is crucial for administrators and officials involved in policy-making processes to familiarize themselves with the relevant research in the fields of social communication sciences, media, and social developments. They should avoid extravagance and unnecessary decisions made without expert support. Adopting the principle of specialization will significantly reduce the risk of material and spiritual losses. Moreover, it is essential to establish a clear and distinct line of differentiation between decision- making and decision implementation.